Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Three pages KANTIAN ETHICS Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) • Summum Bonum • 3 Postulates • Goodwill • Categorical Imperative: (MUST) • Hypothetical Imperative: (IF…THEN) • Ought • Reason: • Duty: • 3 Maxims Table comparing STRENGTHS and WEAKNESSES

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Two pages RELIGION + ETHICS – CONSCIENCE AQUINAS’ THEOLOGICAL APPROACH ‘Reason making right decisions’ Ratio Aristotle’s SENSITIVE SOUL Synderesis Conscientia Vincible ignorance Invincible ignorance FREUD’S PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH Human psyche Unconscious mind Preconscious mind Conscious mind Tripartite personality: Id Ego Superego Other religious responses: JOSEPH BUTLER Innate God-given morality JOHN HENRY NEWMAN: Voice of God AUGUSTINE Intuitive, less rationalist Secular responses: JEAN PIAGET Mature + immature conscience Two stages of moral development Heteronomous morality Autonomous morality LAWRENCE KOHLBERG Authority figures Social interaction ERICH FROMM External authorities Guilty conscience Authoritarian conscience Humanistic conscience Modern responses: RICHARD DAWKINS Evolution Is conscience real? Romans 2 ‘Lust to be nice’ Product of nurture

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Seven pages APPLIED ETHICS CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Examples of CSR: Gates Foundation M&S f Merck & Co Amazon MILTON FRIEDMAN Friedman Doctrine 'Hypocritical window dressing’ Greenwashing Coca-Cola’s Giving Pledge KANTIAN ETHICS Goodwill Universalisability Formula of the End in Itself UTILITARIANISM Act Utilitarianism Bentham Natural rights “nonsense on stilts” Rule Utilitarianism Preference Utilitarianism Evaluation GLOBALISATION Interconnectedness Issues Loss, abuse, damage and inequality KANTIAN ETHICS Capitalism UTILITARIANISM Objective empirical approach Voluntary diversification Evaluation **GOOD ETHICS IS GOOD BUSINESS ** Duty to be honest FRIEDMAN Mill’s harm principle Singer’s strong principle ADAM SMITH Self-interest KARL MARX Instability in capitalism Exploiting labour KANTIAN ETHICS Self-satisfaction instead UTILITARIANISM Pursuit of lower pleasures Evaluation EUTHANASIA Should ‘good death’ be universally permitted? SANCTITY OF LIFE Human life made in God’s image Genesis 1 Catholic DECLARATION ON EUTHANASIA Natural Law’s preservation of life Doctrine of double effect PIUS XII Secondary effect of medicines Dignity of the human person Technological abuse Criticism of SofL DANIEL MAGUIRE PETER SINGER Value to community also RONALD DWORKIN Affirming life QUALITY OF LIFE Secular concept Case studies: DANIEL JAMES TONY NICKLINSON Personhood GERMAIN GRISEZ Criticisms of QofL ‘Playing God’ Consent VOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA GREGORY PENCE Autonomy NON-VOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA Persistent vegetative state PERSONAL AUTONOMY Self-determination Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms J.S MILL Individual is sovereign 'Harm principle’ Criticisms One’s life is of value to others Depression MEDICAL + NON-MEDICAL INTERVENTION Difference between ‘killing’ + ‘letting die’ Morally equivalent, equal responsibility Active or passive? JAMES RACHELS HELGA KUHSE Nazi Germany Conclusion APPLICATION OF ETHICAL THEORIES TO EUTHANASIA NATURAL LAW Doctrine of double effect c Precept of preservation of life Value of life Prevents achieving telos Secular societies What is ‘natural’? Blurred distinction SITUATION ETHICS Agape Personalism Pragmatism Positivism Relativism

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Four pages ETHICAL LANGUAGE – META-ETHICS Definition Do mind-independent moral properties exist? Moral realism Moral anti-realism Cognitivism True/false statements Non-cognitivism Grounding problem NATURALISM Cognitivist + realist Fixed absolutes F.H. BRADLEY Concrete absolute reality Moral perspective Self-realisation Observation Criticism DAVID HUME Empiricist challenge Reason vs emotion Moral good + evil Hume’s Law Moral ‘ought’ statements Factual ‘is’ statements Non-cognitive vs cognitive PHILIPPA FOOT Virtue ethics Moral rules ‘Natural goodness’ J.L. MACKIE Anti-realism Moral rules Tradition Variations between cultures STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES Moral nihilism Verification Tautologies Open question argument Non-moral property INTUITIONISM G.E. MOORE NON-NATURALISM Intuition Intrinsic good Non-natural property Naturalistic fallacy Closed vs open questions H.A. PRICHARD Moral obligations Duty Moral vocabulary W.D. ROSS Conflicting duties Prima facie duties Overriding obligation Seven foundational prima facie duties STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Argument from queerness Cultural relativism EMOTIVISM Approval vs disapproval DAVID HUME MORAL JUDGEMENTS MOTIVATE ACTION HUME’S FORK A.J. AYER Three kinds of knowledge ANALYTIC JUDGEMENTS SYNTHETIC JUDGEMENTS MORAL JUDGEMENTS Judgements of value Utterances of preference C.L. STEVENSON Attitude relative to fundamental belief Persuasion Approval/disapproval STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Quantify goodness/pleasure Foot’s moral realism Moral diversity Moral nihilism Changing moral views Moral progress Embedding problem Key issues: What is meant by ‘good’ Meaningful vs meaningless

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Seven pages RELIGION + ETHICS Normative Ethical Theories NATURAL LAW Roman Catholic approach Intrinsic values Bentham “Nonsense on stilts” Cicero “One eternal law" ARISTOTLE ‘Eudaimonia’ Afterlife THOMAS AQUINAS ‘Beatific vision’ Human purpose Four Tiers of Law: Eternal Law Divine Law Natural Law HUMAN LAW Precepts ‘Rule of synderesis’ Five primary precepts ‘Lex’ & ‘ius’ Real good Apparent good ‘Principle of double effect’ Four conditions required in principle Strengths & weaknesses Just War theory Seven virtues Deontological secondary precepts STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Objective Relativism Rational Conflicting rules JOHN FINNIS Seven basic goods UTILITARIANISM JEREMY BENTHAM Hedonism “Two sovereign masters” Pleasure is sole good, pain sole evil Principle of utility Hedonic calculus Fecundity Purity Act utilitarianism Strengths & weaknesses JOHN STUART MILL Higher and lower pleasures Rule utilitarianism PETER SINGER Preference utilitarianism SITUATION ETHICS WILLIAM TEMPLE Four types on love in the Bible EROS STORGE PHILIA = AGAPE Jesus at Last Supper More loving outcome Jesus’ actions JOSEPH FLETCHER Bioethics God’s rules should not always be followed 'Law of love’ ‘Himself Might his Quietus Make’ ‘Special Bombing Mission No. 13’ ‘Christian Cloak and Dagger’ Loving neighbour = loving God Ten Commandments Greatest Commandment RUDOLF BULTMANN 'Love thy neighbour’ Three ways of making moral decisions: Legalistic ethics Antinomian ethics Situation ethics Six Fundamental Principles Ruling norm of Christian decision Only the end justifies the means Four Working Principles Pragmatism Relativism Positivism Personalism Conscience as a verb RELIGIOUS vs NON-RELIGIOUS AB William Temple Pius XII condemned SE as sacrilegious Jesus’ agape inspired SE STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES Subjectivity Too individualistic Consistent with the gospel Disregards divine command theory Universal appeal Religious vs secular Altruism Truly selfless acts “Situationism is a method” Reality

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Six pages DCT – CHALLENGES THE CHALLENGE OF SECULARISM Secularism Secularisation DAVID FORD JOSE CASANOVA God is an illusion SIGMUND FREUD Humans personify ‘purpose’ Link to Plato’s forms Coping mechanism RICHARD DAWKINS: Religion narrows perception, science widens it JOHN POLKINGHORNE Matthew 5 Objections to secularism JO MARCHANT Physiological benefits “Feeling part of something bigger" "Knowledge of our own mortality” CHARLES TAYLOR 'Subtraction stories’ Post-Enlightenment attitude TERRY EAGLETON Marx “Secularism is largely doomed” Secular capitalism Events of 9/11 Positivist dream of world without religion Christianity should play no part in public life Secular humanism AMSTERDAM DECLARATION Seven aims of modern humanism Programmatic secularism Procedural secularism “Diversity gone mad” ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST FAITH SCHOOLS Radicalisation House of Lords Dominionism Reconstructionism SECULARISATION PROS AND CONS Social cohesion Corrupt theocracy Disenchantment Religious motives replaced by rational motives MAX WEBER Key issues LIBERATION THEOLOGY AND MARX Marx’s teaching on alienation + exploitation Alienation Dehumanisation "Fundamental evil of capitalist society” Exploitation Means to an end Historical materialism = Praxis Proletariat must revolt against bourgeoisie False consciousness ‘Joined-up’ thinking Working towards common good

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Five pages DCT – DEVELOPMENT RELIGIOUS PLURALISM + THEOLOGY EXCLUSIVISM INCLUSIVISM PLURALISM RELIGIOUS PLURALISM + SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT OF CONTEMPORARY MULTI-FAITH SOCIETIES INTERFAITH DIALOGUE CHRISTIAN RESPONSES TO INTERFAITH DIALOGUE Official Church responses Should Christians convert those of other faiths? Should Christians have mission to those of no faith? SCRIPTURAL REASONING MOVEMENT RELATIVISING RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Five pages DCT – LIVING CHRISTIAN MORAL PRINCIPLES BIBLE = ONLY AUTHORITY FOR CHRISTIAN MORALS Theonomous Christian ethics Jesus criticised Pharisees for following law too literally Sola scriptura 2 Timothy theopneustos 2 Peter Issues with theonomous ethics TRANSLATION Exodus WHICH BIBLE Martin Luther apocrypha CONTRADICTIONS (OT vs NT) CHERRY PICKING Leviticus Bibliolatry INTERPRETATION BIBLE, CHURCH + REASON SOURCES OF CHRISTIAN MORALS Heteronomous Roman Catholic attitudes Order of decision-making authority Sacred Tradition Magisterium VATICAN II COUNCIL 1975 Papal infallibility ex cathedra Pius IX Human reason (Natural Law): JOHN PAUL II Issues with accepting Church teachings Jesus Pharisees ROSEMARY RADFORD REUTHER Liberation theology Protestant attitudes to Church teachings Order of decision-making Tradition Archbishop of Canterbury Reformation: STANLEY HAUERWAS AGAPE Autonomous Christian ethics 1 Corinthians Mark HANS KÜNG BENEDICT XVI person of goodwill 'global ethic’ PAUL TILLICH CHURCH HAS AUTHORITY OVER INDIVIDUALS Subjectivity Collective wisdom God’s word Agapeic action CHRISTIAN ETHICS: PERSONAL vs COMMUNAL Human freewill Ability to reason Beliefs of majority Utilitarianism God’s judgement of individuals Community ** CHRISTIAN MORAL ACTION BONHOEFFER Assassination attempt against Hitler DUTY TO GOD + THE STATE Obedience, leadership + doing God’s will Cost of Discipleship Romans God-given authority God’s will DAWKINS **CHRISTIANS’ KNOWLEDGE OF GOD’S WILL ** Conscience AQUINAS Humanity corrupted by Fall Decisions checked by community Freewill Civil disobedience Teachings of Christ ‘Act and Being’ Church or state Mark Romans Exodus Daniel MLK + Rosa Parks Suffragettes DUTY TO GOD OR STATE? Choice should be obvious Jesus “Render to Caesar what is Caesar’s” Bonhoeffer Passivity and evil Romans Leadership on Earth Fundamental Christian principles Christians protesting abortions Bonhoeffer’s extreme circumstances Hitler as ‘anti-Christ’ MEIN KAMPF Anti-Semitism CHURCH AS COMMUNITY + SOURCE OF SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE Confessing Church Visible Church community Proverbs Sermon on Mount SALT + LIGHT ‘Religionless Christianity’ Focus on Christ Finkenwalde Personal discipline Look outwards, not inwards Foundation of prayer Centrality of study + discussion Brotherhood ‘Cheap grace’ vs 'costly grace’ Struggling as Christ did Mark "The badge of true discipleship” Jesus “the man for others” BONHOEFFER’S EMPHASIS ON SUFFERING Contemporary relevance Bonhoeffer’s extreme experiences Effects of globalisation Jesus as central starting point

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Five pages DCT – FOUNDATIONS KNOWLEDGE OF GOD’S EXISTENCE NATURAL KNOWLEDGE OF GOD’S EXISTENCE REVEALED KNOWLEDGE OF GOD’S EXISTENCE ARE NATURAL AND REVEALED KNOWLEDGE OF GOD THE SAME? THE PERSON OF JESUS CHRIST **JESUS’ AUTHORITY AS THE SON OF GOD **Jesus’ divinity expressed in his knowledge of God ** Jesus’ divinity expressed in his miracles **Jesus’ divinity expressed in his resurrection ** JESUS’ AUTHORITY A TEACHER OF WISDOM **Jesus’ moral teaching on repentance + forgiveness ** Jesus’ moral teaching on inner purity + moral motivation **How are Jesus’ teachings useful to an atheist? ** JESUS’ AUTHORITY AS A LIBERATOR Jesus’ role expressed in his challenge to political authority ** Jesus’ role expressed in his challenge to religious authority

Revision for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Five pages DCT – LIVING CHRISTIAN MORAL PRINCIPLES BIBLE = ONLY AUTHORITY FOR CHRISTIAN MORALS Theonomous Christian ethics Sola scriptura Issues with theonomous ethics BIBLE, CHURCH + REASON = SOURCES OF CHRISTIAN MORALS Heteronomous Christian ethics Roman Catholic attitudes to Church teachings Protestant attitudes to Church teachings AGAPE = ONLY CHRISTIAN ETHICAL PRINCIPLE Autonomous Christian ethics CHURCH AUTHORITY OVER THE INDIVIDUAL CHRISTIAN ETHICS: PERSONAL OR COMMUNAL? CHRISTIAN MORAL ACTION BONHOEFFER DUTY TO GOD OR THE STATE? Bonhoeffer’s teaching on obedience, leadership + doing God’s will CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE OF GOD’S WILL Civil disobedience CHURCH AS COMMUNITY + SOURCE OF SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE Bonhoeffer’s role in Confessing Church Bonhoeffer’s role at Finkenwalde COST OF DISCIPLESHIP God’s grace, suffering + solidarity BONHOEFFER’S EMPHASIS ON SUFFERING BONHOEFFER’S RELEVANCE TODAY

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Seven pages DCT – SOCIETY GENDER + SOCIETY Key terms: Feminism Gender biology Gender identification Gender expression Socialisation Patriarchal society Gender dysphoria Misogyny EFFECTS OF CHANGING VIEWS ON GENDER + GENDER ROLES IN CHRISTIANITY Roles of men + women in family and society: Hermeneutics Genesis 1 Both genders reflect nature of God Genesis 2: “no suitable helper” Implied inferiority ‘Helper’ depends on translation Genesis 3: Eve tempted by serpent Women weaker will than men Men shouldn’t let women take lead in decision-making Ephesians 5: “Wives, submit yourselves" Husbands must love their wives like their own bodies Paul Cultural norms of 1st century Rome Patriarchal society Comparisons to Church + Christ’s relationship 1 Peter 3: ‘weaker sex’ 1 Timothy 2: women must learn in silence + never assume authority over man ‘Head’ in Greek also translates to source of life ‘MULIERIS DIGNITATEM’ JOHN PAUL II Response to rise of feminism Virgin Mary recognised as theotokos Gender roles Mariage is mutual relationship of equals Genesis 2 Women shouldn’t take on male roles “Feminine originality” Motherhood + parenthood “The woman’s part” Cultural shift in attitudes to women Rejects feminist criticisms (eg de Beauvir + Frieden) motherhood demeaning to women MARY THE MODEL OF MOTHERHOOD Special value God place on motherhood MYSTERY OF GENERATION Mystery inherent in Trinity ‘sincere gift of self’ Man +woman ‘one flesh’ MUTUALITY “Special debt to the woman” ACTIVE MOTHERHOOD Different types of family: "Intact families Blended family relationships CATECHISM OF CATHOLIC CHURCH: “does not tolerate ‘trial marriages’” Christian responses to contemporary secular views about roles of men + women in family and society Conservative Protestant Christian responses Biblical theology is timeless Gender roles: Purely biological, not product of culture Foucault KATY RUDY Gender roles illustrate power the ‘Right’ in American politics + society Mistrust of socially liberal ideologies Feminism cause of family breakdowns Men + women created equal but different Complementarianism Motherhood + parenthood: Woman’s role ‘domestic haven’ Christian home place of refuge, love, peace Eve = ‘mother of all living’ Paul: husband must provide for family Different types of family: Critical of feminism, cohabitation + same-sex relationships Feminism has led to eroticisation Foucault Couples expect too much from relationships Christianity values permanency Relationships too private + egocentric Christian family should look outwards Same-sex parents not truly Christian

Revision for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Three pages OMNIPOTENCE Divine power • DESCARTES • AQUINAS + SWINBURNE • ANTHONY KENNY Self-imposed limitation • PETER VARDY • JOHN MACQUARRIE • ALVIN PLANTINGA • WILLIAM OF OCKHAM OMNIBENEVOLENCE Divine benevolence JOHN HOSEA EXODUS AMOS PSALMS ETERNITY Divine eternity Boethius Anselm o HARTSHORNE; KENNY • RICHARD SWINBURNE • FRIEDRICH SCHLEIRMACHER FREE WILL (+ omniscience) Romans Hebrews Key Issues

Revision for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Five pages ARGUMENTS FROM OBSERVATION **TELEOLOGICAL ARGUMENT ** AQUINAS’ Fifth Way STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES PALEY FLEW TENNANT COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT ARISTOTLE AQUINAS Summa Theologica Hawking + Hartle Big Bang + Big Crunch LEIBNIZ Criticisms of cosmological argument: Hume: Fallacy of composition Anthropomorphology A posteriori vs a priori ARGUMENTS FROM REASON ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT ANSELM GAUNILO OF MARMOUTIER DESCARTES’ Triangle Cartesian doubt COGITO ERGO SUM KANT SYNTHETIC HYPOTHESIS STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Russell Key issues:

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Four pages DCT – AUGUSTINE’S TEACHING ON HUMAN NATURE JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU THOMAS HOBBES AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO ‘CONFESSIONS’ HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS PRE- AND POST-FALL Pre-Lapsarian Post-Lapsarian ORIGINAL SIN AND ITS EFFECTS ON WILL AND SOCIETY Original Sin is passed on through sex GOD’S GRACE Summum bonum Contrasts Plato and Kant CRITICISMS OF AUGUSTINE Irenaean theodicy DAWKINS Humanitarian principle (PINKER) FREUD **JEAN PAUL SARTRE ** NIEBUHR Prideful sin Realisation of God Key issues

Mind Map for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) One page, best printed at least A3 Christian Concept of the Soul Judgement Election Purgatory Heaven Hell No Afterlife

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Four pages PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION – RELIGIOUS LANGUAGE NEGATIVE, ANALOGICAL, OR SYMBOLIC APOPHATIC WAY • PSEUDO DIONYSIUS • MAIMONIDES CATAPHATIC WAY • AQUINAS • VINCENT BRÜMMER SYMBOLIC LANGUAGE • PAUL TILLICH Key Issues TWENTIETH CENTURY PERSPECTIVES LOGICAL POSITIVISM • VIENNA CIRCLE • A.J. AYER LANGUAGE GAMES • LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN • DON CUPITT • DZ PHILLIPS FALSIFICATION SYMPOSIUM • KARL POPPER • ANTONY FLEW • R.M. HARE • BASIL MITCHELL Key Issues

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Four pages PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION – PHILOSOPHICAL LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT ANCIENT PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES PLATO THE FORMS Heraclitus Realm of the Forms Realm of Appearances Hierarchy of the Forms Allegory of the Cave Criticisms of the allegory Darwin Deus Ex Machina ARISTOTLE Method of per genus et per differentia The Four Causes The Prime Mover SOUL, MIND & BODY THE PHILOSOPHICAL LANGUAGE OF SOUL, MIND AND BODY Views of Plato: Psyche Soul Tripartite soul Allegory of the Chariot Logos Thymos Eros Views of Aristotle: Soul Nutritive soul Sensible soul Rational soul METAPHYSICS OF CONSCIOUSNESS Substance dualism Descartes “Cogito ergo sum” Mind + body Pineal gland Neural dependence Gilbert Ryle ‘Ghost in a machine’ Materialism Consciousness Monism ‘I am a body’ Rejection of soul Dawkins ‘The Selfish Gene’ SOUL ONE / SOUL TWO Susan Blackmore John Hick soft materialist

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Three pages PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION - THE EXISTENCE OF GOD ARGUMENTS FROM OBSERVATION TELEOLOGICAL ARGUMENT AQUINAS Fifth Way WILLIAM PALEY Watchmaker analogy HUME DAWKINS ANTONY FLEW F.R. TENNANT COSMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT ARISTOTLE THOMAS AQUINAS Three cosmological ‘Ways’ Summa Theologica Argument from motion Argument from causation: Contingency argument: “ex nihilo nihil fit” Quantum physics No-boundary proposal: Hawking + Hartle Wave-function of the universe Oscillating universe theory: GOTTFRIED LEIBNIZ Criticisms of cosmological argument: Hume The fallacy of composition STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Key issues ARGUMENTS FROM REASON ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT ANSELM GAUNILO OF MARMOUTIER Dawkins RENE DESCARTES Cartesian doubt COGITO ERGO SUM Analytic statement Descartes’ triangle IMMANUEL KANT SYNTHETIC HYPOTHESIS STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Russell Key issues

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Two pages MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE WILLIAM JAMES MACKIE ST TERESA OF AVILA Sufi Whirling Dervishes RUDOLF OTTO CORPORATE EXPERIENCES Toronto blessing Medjugorje Damascus Christophany Saul SWINBURNE PERSINGER’S HELMET Dawkins

Revision notes for A-level Religious Studies (OCR) Three pages PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION – THE PROBLEM OF EVIL “the rock of atheism” Logical problem of evil Inconsistent triad Epicurus Hume J.L. MACKIE AUGUSTINE Moral evil Natural evil Criticisms and responses Theodicy True theodicy Augustinian Theodicy Original Sin LOGICAL ERROR F.D.E. Schleiermacher creation ex nihilo SCIENTIFIC ERROR MORAL ERROR Freewill Defence ALVIN PLANTINGA SWINBURNE + HICK FLEW Irenaean Theodicy “Then God said ‘they will be like us and resemble us” Omnipotent God Hick DZ PHILLIPS Process theology SWINBURNE GUTIERREZ Liberation theology Pandeism Christian Science MARY BAKER EDDY HUME “Why is there any misery in the world?” Divine Command Theory PETER GEACH Animal suffering ALBERT CAMUS DOSTOEVSKY NIETZSCHE ‘Beyond Good and Evil’